Buddhism in Tibetan System
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Religion
Religions practiced in Tibet encompass Tibetan Buddhism, Bon and folk religion, plus Islam and Christianity. At present, there are some 1,700 monasteries and nunneries of Tibetan Buddhism in the region, with 46,000 resident monks and nuns; 88 monasteries of the Bon religion, with some 3,000 resident monks, 93 Living Buddhas and over 130,000 religious followers; four mosques, with some 3,000 followers; and one Christian church, with over 700 worshippers. Lamas blowing conch The social influence of these religions varies with the regions. The influence of folk religion can be found only in the remote areas. As a result, it is very often ignored in Tibet as, unlike Tibetan Buddhism, the Bon religion, Islam and Christianity, it lacks theory, special venues for rituals and religious organizations. Tibetan Buddhism and the Bon religion are opposing faiths, although they have long exerted influence on each other. Thus parts of the Tibetan Buddhism can be found in the tenets of the Bon, and vice versa. Both have absorbed the cream of the folk religion, such as worship of certain folk spirits. Islam and Christianity are small in the number of followers and influence in Tibet. They are practiced only in a limited area. However, they do exist and live harmoniously with Tibetan Buddhism and the Bon religion. Folk religion is still influential among the Tibetan folks. Tibetan Buddhism In the early 7th century, Buddhism made its way into Tubo (the old name of Tibet) from Nepal and China's Central Plains (the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River). Songtsan Gambo, the Tubo king, married Princess Wencheng of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the Nepalese Princess Bhributi. Each princess brought to Tubo a statue of Buddha, and their accompanying artisans built the Jokhang and Ramoche monasteries in Lhasa to house them. Their accompanying Buddhist monks then set about translating Buddhist scriptures. The 11th Panchen Erdeni studies sutras very hard. Buddhism first became popular among the nobility and then gradually spread among the common people in the 7th century, but it collided with the Bon religion then holding sway. For hundreds of years, Buddhism absorbed many contents of the Bon religion and the folk religion. Gradually, strongly influenced by cultures of the surrounding areas, Buddhism in Tibet grew to possess voluminous classics, rich scriptural tenets, a sound monastic system, a strict sutra study system and meditation system; later, the Living Buddha reincarnation system emerged. Finally, it became a special branch different from the Han Buddhism and Pali-language Buddhism-Tibetan-language Buddhism also known as Lamaism. Through long-time evolution, Tibetan Buddhism was split into many sects, mainly Nyingma (known as the Red Sect), Sagya (known as Colorful Sect), Gagyu (known as the White Sect) and Gelug (known as the Yellow Sect). Of all the sects, Gelug, founded by Zongkapa after his religious reform in the early 15th century, was the most powerful. The two major Living Buddha systems, Dalai and Panchen, came from the Gelug Sect. Through a prolonged period of cultural exchanges, Tibetan Buddhism is practiced mainly in China's Tibet as well as Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces, plus areas concentrated with such ethnic groups in China as the Mongolian, Tu, Yugur, Lhoba, Moinba, Naxi, Pumi and Han. It has worshippers also in Bhutan, Nepal, Mongolia and Russia. During the heyday of Tibetan Buddhism, each Tibetan family was required to provide at least one member to become a monk or nun. This is why Tibetan monks and nuns made up 25 percent of the Tibetan population in the 16th century and thereafter. In 1951 when Tibet was peacefully liberated, there were 100,000 monks and nuns, or over 10 percent of the Tibetan population in Tibet. After the Democratic Reform in 1959, all monasteries went through reform according to suggestions by the 10th Panchen Erdeni. Tibetan people have since enjoyed freedom to be lamas or resume secular life. Living Buddha Reincarnation Tibetan Buddhism has many sects, which have introduced their own system for disciples to take over the teaching from their masters so as to safeguard their established interests and defend their own rule. This constitutes one of the social factors contributing to the introduction of the Living Buddha incarnation system. Garma Gagyu was the first among the various sects of Tibetan Buddhism to introduce the Living Buddha incarnation system. In 1283, when Garma Baxi, an eminent monk with the Garma Gagyu Sect who had been bestowed with the title of Imperial Tutor by the Mongol Khan Mongo, was granted a gold-rimmed black hat as the badge of office on his deathbed, he expressed a wish to find a boy as his reincarnation to inherit the black hat. This was the beginning of the black-hat Living Buddha reincarnation system. Other Tibetan Buddhist sects followed suit. The Dalai Lama reincarnation system was introduced in the 16th century, and that for the Panchen Erdeni in 1713. When the Gelug Sect took over power in the 17th century, the Living Buddha reincarnation system became a means employed by those in power in Tibet to seek prerogatives. To turn the tide, the Qing court promulgated the 29-Article Ordinance for More Effective Governing of Tibet in 1793. Article 1 of the Ordinance prescribed the introduction of the system of drawing a lot from the gold urn to determine the reincarnated soul boy of a deceased Living Buddha. For this purpose, the Qing court had two gold urns made: one for the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni, which is still kept in the Jokhang Monastery in Lhasa; and one for Grand Living Buddha and Hutogtu Living Buddha in Mongolia and Tibet, which is still kept in the Yonghegong Lamasery in Beijing. The State respects the faith in and practice of Living Buddha reincarnation, as well as the religious rituals and historical institution of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1992, the State Council Bureau of Religious Affairs approved the succession of the 17th Karmapa Living Buddha. In 1995, the Tibet Autonomous Region, at the approval of the State Council, accomplished the seeking and confirmation of the 10th Panchen's reincarnated soul boy and the conferment and enthronement of the 11th Panchen, after going through the procedure of drawing a lot from the gold urn. More than 30 Living Buddhas have been determined as new Living Buddhas with the approval of the State Council and TAR government following the end of the Democratic Reform in 1959. Bon Religion In the 5th century BC, Prince Sinrao Mibo of the ancient state of Zhangzhong founded the Bon religion on the basis of an existing primitive religion unique to Zhangzhong. It conducted rituals mainly in the Montog area of Gar County primarily to pray for luck and for dispelling evil. It gradually spread to the area drained by the Yarlung Zangbo River, becoming a dominant religious force in the plateau. When Buddhism spread to Tibet, priests of the Bon religion and Buddhist monks fought each other. For the sake of its own survival and development, Bon was forced to absorb, directly or indirectly, contents of Buddhism, such as putting on the kasaya, building monasteries, taking ritual walks, counting prayer beads [although in a way contrary to Buddhists], and reciting the Six Syllable Prayer [with words entirely different from that of Buddhism]. The Bon religion even has its own reincarnated Living Buddha's. Some say the Bon religion has become merely another form of Buddhism, but its followers reject this. Tibet boasts 88 monasteries of the Bon religion. They include 55 in Qamdo, 23 in Nagqu, six in the Xigaze area, two in Nyingchi, one in Lhasa and one in Ngari. Islam Islam has been practiced in Tibet for some 1,100 years. Nowadays, there are more than 2,000 Hui residents in Lhasa, most of them Muslims. A small number of Muslims come from other ethnic groups or from foreign countries. All of them enjoy Islamic life to the full in Tibet. Muslims in Lhasa Muslims in Lhasa have adopted the habits of Lhasa in terms of language and garments although they still maintain their own beliefs. While praying, they speak in Arabic first and then in Tibetan. There are four mosques in Lhasa, including the most famous one in Hebaling, located on Barkor Street South southeast of Jokhang Monastery. Built in 1716, it originally had a constructed area of some 200 square meters. It underwent reconstruction in 1793. In 1959, when the Dalai Lama and his men staged an armed rebellion, it was destroyed. However, it was rebuilt in the following year. Christianity The only Catholic church is found in Yanjin Village of Mangkam County on the Sichuan-Yunnan border. After Catholicism spread to Yanjin in 1865, there were 17 people who served as priests or missionaries. This area is home mainly to Tibetans. Only a small number of the locals are of Naxi ethnic group. About 80 percent of the population (740) follows the Catholic faith. They recite prayers in Tibetan, and the local believers, like other Tibetans, celebrate the Tibetan New Year while taking Christmas as the most important holiday. While celebrating Christmas, however, there is no Christmas tree and no Santa Claus. A priest presides over the mass and gives a sermon. All the Catholic faithful gather in the courtyard of the church to dine and the party ends with Gozhuang and Xuanzi dances. When the nearby Gangda Monastery celebrates its Sorcerer's Dance, the priest and laity are invited to watch.
Tibetan Buddhism
Preface China is home to a multiplicity of religious beliefs, with the world's three major religions - Buddhism, Catholicism and Islamism - all having large congregations, organizations and activity venues in the country. Buddhism in China mainly includes Han Chinese language Buddhism, which spread into China in 2 B.C.; Tibetan language Buddhism, which spread into Tibet in the 7th century; and Pali language Buddhism, which spread into China in the 13th century. Tibetan Buddhism refers to Tibetan language Buddhism, and is also known as Lamaism. Tibetan Buddhism has exerted extensive and profound influence on the Tibetan race. Buddhism spread into Tibet in the 7th century, and gradually infiltrate Tibet's history, politics, economics, culture, exchanges and habits and customs to become the most extensively worshipped religion of Tibetans. Prolonged ethnic cultural exchanges also enabled Tibetan Buddhism to make its way into the Mongolian, Tu , Yugu, Luoba, Moinba, Naxi, Purmi and other ethnic minority nationalitites throughout China. Buddhism has long been widely worshipped in China's Tibet Autonomous Region, as well as Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai provinces, and the Xinjiang Uygur and Inner Mongolia autonomous regions. It has also made its way into Sikkim, Bhuttan, Nepal, the Mongolian People's Republic and Buryat in the Republic of Russia. More than 1,400 Tibetan monasteries and other religious venues were renovated and opened following the peaceful liberation of Tibet in 1951. Chinese government and policies for religious freedom enable 34,000 monks in various monasteries to freely study Buddhist sutras and hold various types of Buddhist activities in their respective monasteries. In addition, the broad masses of religious have set up shrines, Buddha halls and sutra recitation rooms in their homes, and undertake pilgrimages to sacred sites. Formation of Tibetan Buddhism Books on the history of Tibetan Buddhism record the following legend of how Buddhism spread to Tibet: On one particular day in the 5th century, Lhathothori Nyantzan, forefather of the Tubo Kingdom, was resting on the summit of Yungbolhakang. He suddenly found several Buddhist treasures falling from the sky. While the Tubo King had no idea what they were for, a mysterious voice from the sky informed him that the 6th Tsampo (king) of the Tubo Kingdom would know the use of the objects. According to historical documents, these treasures were brought to Tibet by Indians Buddhists. Upon seeing that Tibetans had no idea of their significance, the Indian monks had no choice but to secret them in a safe place and return to india. The fact remains that Buddhism did spread into Tibet during the reign of Tubo King Songtsan Gambo in the 7th century. Songtsan Gambo did his best to establish friendly ties with neighboring countries in order to strengthen economic and cultural exchanges and learn from the advanced cultures of various races. In the process he married with Princess Khridzun of Nepal and Princess Wencheng of China's Tang Dynasty (618-907). Each princess journeyed to Tibet with a statue of Buddha, and once there set about building the Jokhang and Ramoge monasteries in Lhasa. Artisans accompanying the princess were involved in the construction of monasteries, and Buddhist monks in their tourages began translating Buddhist scriptures. Buddhism thus spread to Tibet from Nepal and Han areas. Tibet reeled under power struggle for more than half a century following the death of Songtsan Gambo. Buddhism failed to flourish until Tride Zhotsan, great grandson of Songtsan Gambo, finally took power. In 710, Tride Zhotsan asked for the hand of and eventually married Princess Jincheng of the Tang Dynasty. The new bride moved the statue of Buddha, which Princess Wencheng brought to Tibet, to the Jokhang Monastery. Meanwhile, she arranged monks accompanying her to the Tubo Kingdom to take in charge of the monastery and related religious activities. She engaged in a painstaking effort and finally succeeding in persuading the Tubo court to accept monks fleeing from Western Regions and build seven monasteries to house them. While the measures further boosted the development of Buddhism in Tibet, they nonetheless sparked discontent amongst ministers worshipping the Bon religion. The ministers left no stone unturned to obstruct the development of Buddhism, with to situation lasting until Trisong Detsan, the son of Tride Zhotsan, came to power. Trison Detsan relied on Buddhism to fight ministers who rallied behind the Bon religion. As part of the effort, he invited Zhibatsho and Padmasambhava, famous Indian monks, to build the Samye Monastery in 799. Seven noble children were later tonsured to the monastery, which became the first monastery in Tibetan Buddhist history to tonsure monks. The event thus pioneered the tonsure system of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to inviting Indian monks to Tibet, Trisong Destan sent trusted emissaries to China's hinterland to invite monks to lecture in Tibet. Mahayana became one of the many Han monks who contributed to ensuring that Han Buddhism flourished in Tibet. Mahayana remained in Tibet for 11 years lecturing on Buddhism and completing nine books on Buddhist tenets. Tubo kings in ensuing dynasties did their utmost to promote Buddhism by building monasteries and commissioning the translation of Buddhist sutras. At the same time, they granted monks royal incomes and even encouraged them to become involved in government affairs in order to undermine ministers who supported the Bon religion. The policy spawned the deep hatred of said ministers, who eventually arranged for the assassination of Tritso Detsan in 842. The ministers threw their support behind Darma, the brother of Tritso Detsan, to become the new Tubo king. This was in turn followed by the large-scale suppression of Buddhism in the region. Shortly after assuming power, Darma set out to suppress Buddhism, but was soon assassinated by Tibetan Buddhists, and war erupted between the different power factions. Slaves, who were thrown into the abyss of misery, rose to revolt. Tibet was torn apart by various forces. The "diffusion of Buddhism'' was thus halted. The early 10th century witnessed the entry of a feudal society in tibet, with each of the Tubo ministers occupying a part of the kingdom and becoming feudal powers in their respective localities. They proceeded to promote Buddhism in order to strengthen their own rule. Buddhism was thus revived in Tibet. In terms of form and content, however, Buddhism rising in Tibet during tit particular period was worlds apart from Tubo Buddhism. The 300-odd years of struggle between Buddhism and the Bon religion resulted in each absorbing the strong points of the other. Buddhism became increasingly Tibetanized as the region entered the feudal stage. Tibetan Buddhism emerged and entered a stage of rapid development. Buddhist Sects and Characteristics Numerous Buddhist Acts emerged after the mid-11th century, including the Nyingma, Gatang, Sagya, Gagyu, Zhigyed, Gyoyul, Gyonang, Kodrag and Xalhu sects. The latter five were rather weak owing to the lack of political support. They were thus forced to join force or were otherwise annexed by other sects, and as individual entities fell into the oblivion of the long flow of history. The following five sects enjoyed impressive popularity: Nyingma Sect. The sect, founded in the 11th century, is also known as the Red Sect and is the oldest sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The sect paid great attention to absorbing the fine points of the Bon religion and, at the same time, did its best to locate Buddhist sutras secreted away when Darma moved to suppress Buddhism. Based on its practice of Buddhism deeply rooted in the Tubo Kingdom of the 8th century, the sect called itself Nyingma, a word meaning ancient and old in the Tibetan language. Monks of the Nyingma Sect wore red hats, hence the name the Red Sect. The Red Sect mainly advocates the study of Tantrism. Its theory was strongly influenced by Han Chine language Buddhism, and is quite similar with the theory of Ch'an School of Buddhism in China's hinterland. Today, the Red Sect is not only active in Tibetaninhabited areas in Ghina, but also in India, Bhuttan, Nepal, Belgium, Greece and France, as well as in the Unite States. Gatang Sect. The Gatang Sect, founded in 1056, primarily advocated the study of Exoteric teachings, with later emphasis on Tantrism. In the Tibetan language, Ga refers to the teachings of Buddha, with tang meaning instruction. The combination Gatang thus refers to advising people to accept Buddhism based on the teachings of Buddha. Its doctrines were promoted far and wide and thus exerted great influence on various Tibetan Buddhist sects. However, along with the rise of the Gelug Sect in the 15th century, the Gatang Sect dissolved with its monks and monasteries merging with the former. Sagya Sect. Sagya means "white land'' in the Tibetan language. The Sagya Sect, founded in 1703, derived its name from the fact that the Sagya Monastery, the sect's most important monastery, is grayish white in color. Enclosures in the sect's monasteries are painted with red, white and black stripes, which respectively symbolize the Wisdom Buddha, the Goddess of Mercy and the Diamond Hand Buddha. Hence, the sect is also known as the Stripe Sect. The ever increasing influence of the sect and the expansion of feudal forces throughout its formation led to the increasing fame of the "five Sagya Sect Forefathers''. The Fourth Forefather Sapan Gonggar Gyaincain was summoned to Liangzhou in 1247 by the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) ruler to dialup matters concerning Tibet pledging allegiance to the Yuan Dynasty. This was followed by Sapan bringing various feudal forces in Tibet under control of the Mongols. Following the death of Sapan, Pagan, the Fifth Forefather of the Sagya Sect, emerged as a high-ranking official in the Yuan court. Pagba Was granted honorary titles such as "State Tutor", ''Imperial Tutor'' and ''Great Treasure Prince of Dharma.'' Thereafter, the Sagya Sect emerged as the Yuan Dynasty representative in Tibet. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) , Gonggar Zhaxi, an eminent monk with the Sagya Sect, journeyed to Nanjing, capital of the Ming Dynasty, to pay homage to Emperor Yongle. Gongar was granted an honorary title as the "Mahayana Prince of Dharma'', one of the three Princes of Dharma. Gagyu Sect. The Gagyu Sect, founded in the 11th century, stresses the study of Tantrism and advocates that Tantrist tenets be passed down orally from one generation to another. Hence the name Gagyu, which in the Tibetan language means "passing down orally.'' Marba and Milha Riba, the founders of the Gagyu Sect, wore white monk robes when practicing Buddhism , leading to the name White Sect. In the early years, the White Sect was divided into the Xangba Gagyu which declined in the 14th and to 15th centuries, and the Tabo Gagyu. The Tabo Gagyu was powerful and its branch sects were either in power in their respective localities or otherwise dominant amongst feudal forces. Gelug Sect. The Gelug Sect, founded in 1409, was the most famous Buddhist sect in Tibetan history dating to the 15th century. The sect was founded during the reform of Tibetan Buddhism initiated by Zongkapa. Zongkapa himself was born at a time when the Pagmo Zhuba replaced the Sagya Regime in power. At that time, upper-class monks involved in political and economic power struggle led a decadent life, and rapidly lost popularity with society. Faced with this situation, Zongkapa called for efforts to follow Buddhist tenets. He proceeded to undertake lecture tours in many areas and wrote books accusing decadent monks of failing to abide by Buddhist tenets. Zongkapa spared no effort to press ahead with Buddhist reform. For example, in the first month of 1409 according to Tibetan calendar, Zongkapa initiated the Grand Summons Ceremony in Lhasa's Jokhang Monastery. The ceremony remains in practice even today. This effort was closely followed by the construction of the famous Gandain Monastery and the founding of the Gelug Sect which was famous for its strict adherence to commandments. The Tibetan language meaning of Gelug is "commandments''. Zongkapa and his followers wore yellow hats, and thus the Gelug Sect is also known as the Yellow Sect. Since its founding, the Yellow Sect has built the Zhaibung, Sera, Tashilhungpo, Tar and Labrang monasteries, which join the Gandain Monastery as the six major monasteries of the Gelug Sect. The Yellow Sect is also known for formation of the two largest Living Buddha reincarnation systems - the Dalai and Bainqen systems. The Reincarnation of the Living Buddhas The reincarnation system for the Living Buddhas is the main point distinguishing tibetan Buddhism from other forms of Buddhism. What led to the introduction of the system? The term Living Buddha emerged in the early Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) when Emperor Kublai Khan honored Pagba, head of the Sagya Sect, by granting him the title "Buddha of the Western Paradise.'' Thereafter, eminent Tibetan monks we distinguished themselves in the practice of Buddhism were referred to as ''Living Buddhas.'' However, the term Living Buddha was not recognized as a special title for a monk who became the successor of the deceaed leader of a monastery until the eventual introduction of the Living Buddha reincarnation system. In 1252 , Kublai Khan granted an audience to Pagba and Garma Pakshi, an eminent monk with the Garma Gagyu Sect. Garma Pakshi, however, sought the patronage of Monge Khan who proceeded to bestow him a gold-rimmed black hat and a golden seal of authority. Prior to his death in 1283, Garma Paksli penned a will to ensure the established interests of his sect. The will advised his disciples to locate a boy to inherit the black hat, with the instruction based on the premise that Buddhist idelogy is eternal, and a Buddha would be reincarnated to complete the missions he had initiated. Garma Pakshi's disciples acted in accordance with the will and located the reincarnated soul boy of their master. The event marked the introduction of the Living Buddha reincarnation system for the Black-Hat Line of Tibetan Buddhism. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Emperor Yongle honored Black-Hat Living Buddha Garmaba as the ''Great Treasure Prince of Dharma,'' the first of the three "Princes of Dharma.'' The Living Buddha reincarnation system remains in operation today. On September 27, 1992, the Curpu Monastery in Doilungdeqen County, Lhasa, was the site of a grand ceremony marking the enthronement of the 16th Living Buddha Garmaba. The event marked a new page in th history of the Garma Gagye Sect. Various sects of Tibetan Buddhism reacted to the introduction of the Living Buddha reincarnation system by creating numerous similar systems. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) reign of Emperor Qianlong alone, 148 Grand Living Buddhas registered for reincarnation with the Board for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, with the number of registrants rising to 160 by the end of the dynasty. The most influential reincarnation systems have since been the Dalai and Bainqen Lama systems. The reincarnation system for the Dalai Lama was introduced in the 16th century. In the early years of the Qing Dynasty, the 5th Dalai Lama journeyed to Beiing to pay homage to Emperor Shunzhi. The Qing emperor granted him the honorific title of "the Dalai Lama, Overseer of the Buddhist Faith on Earth Under the Great Benevolent Self-subsisting Buddha of the Western Paradise.'' The title Dalai Lama was thus established and is still in up today. The current Dalai Lama was enthroned in the Potala Palace on February 22, 1940, during a ceremony presided over by Wu Zhongxin, minister of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs of the nationalist government of the Republic of China (1911-49). The nationalist government ordered that he be confirmed as the reincarnated soul boy of the 13th Dalai Lama without the requirement to carrying the established method of drawing lot from the golden urn and that he instead directly succeed as the 14th Dalai Lama. The reincarnatin system for the Bainqen Lama was introduced in 1713 when the 5th Bainqen was granted the honorific title as "Bainqen Erdeni," with Erdeni meaning "great treasure" in Manchu. The 9th Bainqen Erdeni and the 13th Dalai Lama were at odds during the period of the Republic of China, with the 9th Bainqen Erdeni departing for China's hinterland. He later passed away in Qinghai Province. The Tashilhungpo Monastery, the resident monastery for the Bainqen Erdeni, located a boy by the name of Gongbo Cidain. All signs pointed to the fact that he was indeed the reincarnated soul boy of the 9th Bainqen Erdeni. Li Zongren, the acting president of the Republic of China, issued a special order instructing that the boy "be excuses from the lot-drawing method and given the special permission to succeed as the 10th Bainqen Erdeni." The grand enthronment ceremony held in the Tar Monastery on August 10, 1949, was presided over by Guan Jieyu, minister of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibean Affairs of the nationalist government of the Republic of China. The Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism came to power in Tibet in the 17th century and the Living Buddha reincarnation system became a bone of contention with the upper class in Tibet. In 1793, as part of an effort to turn the tide by overcoming drawbacks characteristic of soul boys nominated from the same tribes, the Qing government promulgated the 29-Article Ordinance for the More Efficient Governing of Tibet. Article one of the Ordinance stipulates: In order to ensure the Yellow Sect continues to flourish, the Grand Emperor bestows it with a golden urn and ivory slips for use in confirming the reincarnated soul boy of a deceased Living Buddha. For this purpose, four major Buddhist Guardians will be summoned; the name's of candidates, as well as their birth years, will be written on the ivory slips in the three languages - Manchu, Han chinese and Tibetan; the ivory slips will be placed into the golden urn and learned Living Buddhas will pray for seven days before various Hotogtu Living Buddhas and High Commisioners stationed in Tibet by the Central Government officially confirm the reincarnated soul boy by drawing a lot from the golden urn in front of the statue of Sakyamuni in the Jokhang Monastery. The system of drawing lot from the golden urn thus perfected the Living Buddha reincarnation system of Tibetan Buddhism. Following the lot-drawing ceremony, the High Commissioners and leaders of the soul boy search group were required to report the result to the Central Government. The enthronement ceremony was held following the approval of the Central Government. The Qing court commissioned artisans to create two golden urns. One go1den urn, used to confirm reincarnations of the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni, is currently housed in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. The other, used to confirm the reincarnations of Mongolian and Tibetan Grand Living Buddhas and hotogtu Living Buddhas, is housed in the Yonghegong Lamasery in Beijing.
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism refers to Tibetan-language Buddhism, also known as Lamaism. In the early 7th century, Songtsan Gambo wed Tang Dynasty (618-907) Princess Wencheng from the Central Plains and Nepalese Princess Bhributi. Each princess brought to Tubo a statue of Buddha, and the Jokhang and Rampoche Monasteries were built to house the two statues. Artisans who accompanied the princesses had monasteries built, while accompanying Buddhist monks set about translating the Buddhist scriptures. As a result, Buddhism made its way into Tubo life, and Buddhist tenets gradually infiltrated its politics, economics, culture, education, customs and habits. Tibetan Buddhism that emerged was widely worshipped by the Tubo residents. Through a prolonged period of cultural exchanges, Tibetan Buddhism has spread to other ethnic groups in China, such as the Mongolian, Tu, Yugu, Lhoba, Moinba, Naxi and Pumi ethnic groups. It has worshippers not only in China's Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia, but also in Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, Mongolia and Russia. During the heyday of Tibetan Buddhism, each Tibetan family was required to provide at least one member to become a monk or nun. This is why Tibetan monks and nuns made up 25 percent of the Tibetan population in the 16th century and thereafter. In 1950, there were 100,000 monks and nuns, or over 10 percent of the Tibetan population in Tibet in 1951. Following the peaceful liberation of Tibet, the Central Government followed a policy of freedom of religious belief in Tibet. After the Democratic Reform in 1960, various monasteries conducted reform according to suggestions by the 10th Panchen Erdeni. Tibetan people have since enjoyed freedom to be lamas or resume secular life. Nowadays, there are 1,787 religious activity centers, and 46,000 monks and nuns or 2 percent of the Tibetan population in the Tibet Autonomous Region. Buddhist Sects By the mid-11th century, Nyingma, Gedang, Sagya, Gagyu, Gelug, Shigyia, Joryu, Jorxiang, Gozha, and Shalhu Buddhist sects had emerged. The first five were powerful enough to last for a long time, while the others fell into historical oblivion. Reincarnation of Living Buddhas The reincarnation of Living Buddhas constitutes the most important difference between Tibetan Buddhism and other schools of Buddhism. In 1283, when Garma Baxi?who had been bestowed with the title of Imperial Tutor by the Mongol Khan Mongo, and granted a gold-rimmed black hat as the badge of office?was on his deathbed, he expressed a wish to find a boy as his incarnation to inherit the black hat. This was the beginning of the black-hat Living Buddha reincarnation system. Various other Buddhist sects followed suit. Statistics show 148 Living Buddhas were registered with the Council for the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs during the reign of Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Emperor Qianlong; and the number went up to 160 at the end of the Qing Dynasty. The Dalai Lama incarnation system was introduced in the 17th century, and that for the Panchen Erdeni in 1713. When the Gelug Sect took over power in Tibet, the Living Buddha incarnation system became a means employed by those in power in Tibet to seek prerogatives. To turn the tide, the Qing Dynasty court promulgated the 29-article Ordinance for More Effective Governing of Tibet in 1793. Article 1 of the Ordinance prescribed the introduction of the system of drawing a lot from the golden urn to determine the reincarnated soul boy of a deceased Living Buddha. For this purpose, the Qing court had two golden urns made: one for the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni, which is still kept in the Potala Palace in Lhasa; and one for Grand Living Buddhas and Hutogtu Living Buddhas in Mongolia and Tibet, which is still kept in the Yonghegong Lamasery in Beijing. Freedom of Religious Belief Article 7 of the 17-article Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, signed on May 23, 1951 in Beijing, stipulated: "The religious beliefs, customs and habits of the Tibetan people shall be respected, and lama monasteries shall be protected.?The Central Government has since followed the policy of respecting the religious beliefs, customs and habits of the Tibetan people, and protecting lamaseries and cultural relics. In 1960, the 10th Panchen Erdeni Qoigyai Gyamcain put forth five methods for the reform of monasteries in Tibet: (1) Giving up exploitation; (2) conducting demo-cratic management; (3) following Government decrees and the Chinese Constitution in mona-steries; (4) lamas taking part in production; and (5) the Government covering the lives of old and emaciated lamas and lamas charged with reciting Buddhist scriptures exclusively. Through the reform, Tibetans began enjoying the freedom to be lamas and lamas finally began to enjoy the freedom to resume secular life if they chose; various Buddhist sects were equal; mona-stery monks elected a democratic management committee or democratic management group to manage their own religious affairs and conduct Buddhist activities. Since 1980, the Central Government has allocated some 200 million Yuan to finance the repair of monasteries, holy stupas and religious activities, although there is financial difficulty. In 1985, the Central Government earmarked 6.7 million Yuan, plus 108.85 kg of gold, 1,000 kg of silver and 665 kg of mercury, to repair the holy stupa for the 5th-9th Panchen Erdenis. When the 10th Panchen Erdeni died on January 28, 1989, in Tibet, the Central Government decided two days later that efforts should be made to look for and determine the reincarnated soul boy of the late master in accordance with the set historical precedence and traditional Tibetan Buddhist rituals, and the soul boy candidates be reported to the State Council for approval. On November 29, 1995, a ceremony was held to draw a lot from among three from the golden urn in the Jokhang Monastery in accordance with the set historical precedence and traditional Tibetan Buddhist rituals. Gyaincain Norbu, 6, from Jiali County in northern Tibet, was determined as the reincarnated soul boy of the late 10th Panchen Erdeni. With the approval of the Central Government, he succeeded as the 11th Panchen Erdeni. The enthronement ceremony was held on December 8 in the Tashilhungpo Monastery, Xigaze; and the representative of the Central Government issued him with the golden sheet of appointment and the golden seal of authority. In June 1990, the Central Government approved the construction of the golden stupa and memorial hall for the late 10th Panchen Erdeni. For this purpose, it allocated some 64 million Yuan, plus over 600 kg of gold, some 500 kg of silver and other kinds of needed materials. In 1993, the stupa and memorial hall were commissioned and a grand consecration ceremony was held on September 4, showing the careful treatment the Central Government gives to an outstanding religious leader. In October 1988, the Central Government decided to finance the repair of the Potala Palace. The repair project, which lasted five years, involved a total investment amounting to 53 million Yuan; it turned out to be one consuming more funds than any other cultural relics units in China at large. In 1994, the Central Government decided to allocate 20 million Yuan to finance the repair of the Gandain Monastery. In 1984, the government of the Tibet Autonomous Region allocated 500,000 Yuan to finance the opening of the Lhasa Sutra Printing House. Over the years, the printing house has printed more than 1,000 volumes of Gangyur in Tibetan. In 1990, the government of the Tibet Autonomous Region allocated 500,000 Yuan to finance the creation of woodblocks for the printing of the Lhasa edition of Dangyur in Tibetan in the Moru Monastery, which the late 13th Dalai Lama intended but failed to create. The year 1983 saw the Buddhist Association of the Tibet Autonomous Region open the Tibet Buddhism College. On September 1, 1987, the China Tibetan Language Higher Institute of Buddhism was set up in Beijing in accordance with the proposal of the late 10th Panchen Erdeni and Zhao Puchu, President of the Buddhist Association of China, and with the approval of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council. Students of the institute are reincarnated Living Buddhas (some being monk students) of Tibetan Buddhism hailing from the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Tibetan-inhabited areas in the four provinces of Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Liaoning Province, and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The eighth college-level class of the Beijing China Higher Tibetan Language Institute of Buddhism graduated on June 1, 2001. Graduates hailed from Tibet, Yunnan, Sichuan, Gangu, Qinghai and Inner Mongolia. They are 33 Living Buddhas of the six sects of Tibetan Buddhism including Gelug, Sagya, Nyingma and Gagyu. On September 11, 2001, the ninth college-level class opened school. Students, totaling 34 in number, came from the same regions mentioned above. They are scheduled to study and practice mediation in the Institute of Buddhism for two years. The Institute has since its founding in 1987 trained nine groups of students, totaling over 320 in number. Upon graduation, they return to where they came, working hard to defend unification of the motherland, national unity, social stability and local economic construction. ? Buddhist Sects
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Examples
1 Finally, it became a special branch different from the Han Buddhism and Pali-language Buddhism-Tibetan-language Buddhism also known as Lamaism.
2 Tibetan language Buddhism, which spread into Tibet in the 7th century; and Pali language Buddhism, which spread into China in the 13th century.
3 Over centuries, Buddhism in China has developed into three linguistic forms: Chinese-language Buddhism, Pali-language Buddhism, and Tibetan-language Buddhism, also called Lamaism.