Preschool Education
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Early Childhood Education in China
Traditional early childhood education in China currently faces both internal and external challenges changing family structures and increased influence of foreign ideas and values. The one child policy in the People's Republic of China is altering family roles and child-rearing practices, raising concerns about the possible harmful effects of too much attention and pampering. A study of single child families in the Beijing area found that these 'little emperors and princesses" were more egocentric, less persistent and less cooperative than children with siblings (Jiao, Guiping & Qicheng, 1986). How have these children adjusted to schools? Or have the schools changed to accommodate them? As China becomes more open to outside contact and influence, traditional teaching comes into conflict with Western ideas about "developmentally appropriate practices" and goals of creativity, autonomy and critical thinking. Have these goals and practices, which are so prevalent in the United States today, influenced Chinese early childhood education? In 1991, I had ample opportunity to explore such questions when I spent seven months teaching in China. I drew much of my information from observations of early childhood programs in Xi'An, where I taught at Xi'An Foreign Languages University. My conclusions are consistent with what I observed and heard in interviews with teachers, parents and teacher educators throughout China. It is difficult to observe the ordinary functioning of a typical school in China because officially approved and arranged visits for foreigners are usually made to "model" programs and involve special arts and performances (Gentry, 1981; Shepherd, 1991). I was able, however, to arrange more informal visits through Chinese friends and travel companions. My most extensive experience was as an English language teacher in a Xi'An child care center, which was considered a typical rather than a model center. My role as a participant-observer allowed me to witness the center's normal functioning over a period of time and gain deeper understanding of the children through personal interaction. Three Types of Early Childhood Programs Children enter elementary school at age 6. There are three types of early childhood program for children under 6: nurseries, kindergarten and pre-primary programs. Nurseries serve children under age 3. Small group size and many caregivers assure prompt, abundant care. Since physical care and nurturing are the primary goals, the caregivers are trained as "nurses" rather than teachers. Programs for 2-year-olds are often combined with kindergartens. In China, the term "kindergarten" refers to full-day programs serving children from age 3 to age 6. About 20 percent of the 3-to-6 year-olds attend kindergarten (Zhong, 1989). The programs serve the twofold purpose of child care and educational preparation. The troublesome dichotomy between these two functions often found in the United States (Caldwell, 1990) is not an issue in China. There is no history of a dual development of one type of full-day program to provide care for children of working mothers and another type of half-day program to provide education for children of non-employed mothers. A variety of sources provide kindergarten programs - the government, government-licensed private individuals and neighborhood committees, and work units. Work units are government-operated comprehensive communities in which workers and their families work and reside, such as those organized around a college or factory. Children are generally grouped by age in kindergarten. Government regulations in 1981 recommended three groupings: juniors (3-year-olds), middle (4-year-olds) and seniors (5-year-olds) (Cleverley, 1985). Education replaces physical care as the primary emphasis in this program. Class size increases with age, ranging from 20 to 40 children. Each group typically has two teachers and a nurse. Large, affluent centers also often have one or more doctor on the staff to care for sick or injured children. They also provide other health-related services, such as performing health screenings, giving immunizations and planning nutritious meals. An alternative type of early childhood program is the pre-primary classroom, which is a part of the elementary school. It is typically a half-day program serving children the year prior to 1st grade. Comparable to U.S. public kindergartens, these classes usually place greater emphasis upon academics and use teaching methods similar to those of the Chinese elementary classrooms. Curriculum The nationally prescribed curriculum includes language, math, art, music, physical education and general knowledge, which is a combination of science and social studies (Spodek, 1988). Each class session focuses upon a particular curriculum area. In the language classes, children learn to read and write simple Chinese characters, plus pinyin (the phonetic romanization of Chinese). In math classes, they learn number concepts, numeral recognition and addition; manipulatives are frequently incorporated into the lessons. The emphasis upon academic work varies with the school and the age of the children. Academics are generally not given major emphasis until children reach age 5. The pre-primary classrooms associated with elementary schools stress academic goals more than do the kindergartens. Parents often want their children to begin academic work early, believing it will give these a head start in the competitive struggle for scholastic success-considered the major route to future opportunities. The competitive and selective entry procedures to "key" and many better neighborhood schools heighten this perceived need for an early start (Hawkins & Stites, 1991). Key schools are highly selective schools designed for academically superior students. Singing and dancing occupy an important place in the curriculum. Even 2-year-olds may participate in well-rehearsed public performances of song and dance routines. The following sections describe the physical environment, schedule, curriculum, teaching methods and discipline of the Chinese kindergarten centers, where most of my observations took place. Physical Environment A kindergarten often has several classroom buildings surrounding an enclosed courtyard. This courtyard serves as the playground and is used extensively between classroom lessons. The playground contains equipment for large motor activities, including slides, merry-go-rounds, climbers and swings. Bright colors and dragon or elephant shapes provide added appeal. The ground cover is usually a sturdy brick or concrete, with no sand, grass or airs to soften falls. A few trees, bushes and flowers do, however, beautify the environment. Children are generally free to choose their own activities, with little teacher-directed activities or even supervision. Each group of children has its own large classroom, plus a separate room with beds for afternoon naps. Several groups of children generally share toilet facilities and washrooms. Each group in the model school at the Xi'An Teachers College has a self-contained space, complete with classroom, sleeping room, toilet and washroom. The younger children even have their own playground. The classrooms contrast sharply with a typical American preschool. The space is not organized into special interest areas and equipment is scarce or not easily accessible to children. American pre-schools are supplied with unit blocks, dramatic play centers, open shelves felled with art supplies, sand and water tables. In China, however, small tables and chairs for each child occupy much of the room. A large open space may be set aside at one end for group activities, such as dancing. The better-equipped centers may possess one shelf of toys and books available for children's use during their free time. Elaborate, artistic, teacher-made decorations and children's work brighten up otherwise drab rooms. One artistically talented teacher painted large murals of children and animals in the hallways. Another placed a large, colorful clown on the wall as part of a weather wheel. Children's work varied greatly and included such items as mobiles, math papers, crayon drawings and paper foldings. Typical Daily Schedule The length of the school day reflects the needs of working parents. At the Xi'An Foreign Languages University, kindergarten children begin arriving around eight o'clock Class sessions alternate with free-play time. The length and number of these classes increase as children grow older, varying from six 15-minute sessions per week for the youngest to fourteen 35-minute sessions for the oldest (Lystad, 1987). Following a hot, nutritious lunch, children take a long nap, eat a snack and then have free play time. Families, often grandparents, pick up the children after work at about five or six o'clock. Instead of riding home in the family car, these children either walk to their nearby homes or ride on the back of the family bike. Learning social skills is also considered an important part of the curriculum, particularly for younger children. Along with respecting the teacher and obeying school rules, children team to help others and solve disagreements constructively. One teacher expressed concern about a common problem, the shy child. She described her efforts to help these children feel comfortable and speak up more. Teaching Methods While much of the curriculum content is similar to a typical American program, the teaching methods are quite different from the "developmentally-appropriate practices' advocated by early childhood educators in the United States (NAEYC, 1986). Children seldom work independently or in small groups on self-selected tasks. Instead, the emphasis is upon teacher-directed, total group instruction. All children are expected to do the same thing at the same time. For example, in a typical art lesson the teacher demonstrates how to fold and twist tissue paper into butterflies. She then gives guidance to those children doing it incorrectly before proceeding to the next step of pasting the butterfly onto paper and drawing antennae. Drawing lessons often consist of children copying an object drawn by the teacher. Even when using manipulatives, all children use the same kind at the same time. For example, one class of children might play independently with Legos, each child using just a few pieces, while in another room each child plays with a tiny portion of Playdough. The importance of the whole group instructional approach appears to outweigh the limitations of minimal supplies. Even such practices as going to the bathroom are often done in a group, with the explanation that "It's good for children to learn to regulate their bodies and attune their rhythms to those of their classmates" (Tobin, Wu & Davidson, 1989, 105). I was surprised at the independence and lack of peer interaction in these group activities. Since China has a socialist ideology, I expected more lessons to use co-operative interactions and teamwork, in order to emphasize group rather than individual achievement. The encouragement of group rather than individual goals was evident, however, in the emphasis on teaching children altruistic and nurturing behaviors. Children helped one another with dressing and often gave up a prized toy to a playmate with no prodding by the teacher. All children are expected to proceed at the same pace. The child is responsible for keeping up and poor performance is usually attributed to "not working hard enough." The solution is to admonish the child to work more diligently. The teaching method and the available materials limit opportunities for creative expression or pursuit of individual interests. Ample materials necessary for open-ended, unstructured exploration are seldom available. Sand and water play, blocks and woodworking equipment are rare. Art supplies are typically used for teacher-directed, rather than child-initiated activities. Guidance and Discipline What is considered acceptable school behavior? During group activities, children are expected to give their complete attention to the teacher and participate fully. Talking or playing with other children is not allowed during this time. Respect for the teacher and prompt, unquestioning obedience are expected. During free-play time, however, noisy and active social interactions are quite acceptable. Teachers encourage harmonious peer relationships, in which children respect the rights of others and help each other. I was impressed with how well the children meet these expectations. They generally appear to be orderly, attentive, hard-working and eager to please the teacher. I saw very few incidents of peer conflict or inattentive or disruptive behavior during group activities, and no cases of disrespect or lack of prompt obedience to the teacher's requests. Some of the guidance and discipline methods differ from standard practices in the United States. A widely used technique is public correction and criticism, not just for misbehavior but also for poor performance. Children who are not doing well or have made a mistake are commonly singled out in public. One teacher removed two young girls from a group practicing a dance, asking them to sit down and watch the others because they were "not trying hard enough." In a pre-primary class where children completed a phonetics task on the chalkboard, the teacher required those who had made a mistake to stand up and acknowledge their error. Teachers do not appear concerned about any possible psychological harm resulting from these practices, such as lowered self-esteem. Rather, they believe such corrections will help the child work harder so as to avoid future mistakes. The threat of a public reprimand and "loss of face" appears to be a strong, pervasive influence upon children's behavior. The importance of "face" has a long history in Chinese culture. Loss of face results from public embarrassment and failure to meet group expectations. The child learns early to keep the approval of the social group, for loss of face is a reflection upon the whole family (Hu, 1944). Positive reinforcement for good behavior is also used extensively. Teachers praise and recognize children who are doing well, often pointing out "the best ones" in class. Children receive rewards, such as red stars, for helping another child, answering questions in class or doing well on written work. Effect of One Child Policy Does a difficult transition occur for the only child who goes from being the center of attention at home to being part of a large group expected to obey and conform? Both parents and teachers told me that children may experience a difficult time at first, crying and wanting to go home, but usually they accept the situation and quickly adjust to school routines. Teachers try to comfort and distract such children by interesting them in new toys. Teachers seldom have a problem getting new children to participate in group activities. As one teacher stated, "when they see all the others participating, they do not want to be different." The schools assume that these only children will adapt to the traditional school expectations and, in most cases, this adjustment appears to occur without undue stress or rebellion. The one child policy has, however, affected the schools in another way. It has strengthened the emphasis upon education for young children and the families' strong involvement and investment in their only child. Teachers report that not only are parents very interested in their child's school success, but they are also very quick to criticize teachers if they feel their child has been treated unfairly or too harshly. Conclusion Early childhood education programs in the People's Republic of China differ significantly from those in the United States, particularly in teaching methods. Both its socialist ideals and Confucian traditions may help explain the persistence of the whole group, teacher-directed emphasis, rather than the use of individual choices and creative self-expression. This emphasis may be changing, however, as a current reform movement works to foster more creativity and autonomy (Spodek, 1989). My experiences in China confirm the view that the Chinese greatly love and value their children, regarding them as family and national resources. In spite of limited resources, they make major investments in their children and the education system. Through these investments, they effectively provide an early childhood education system that fosters obedient, hardworking children. References Caldwell, B. (1990). `'Educare": A new professional identity. Dimensions, 18, 3-6. Cleverley, J. (1985). The schooling of China. Sydney, Australia: George Allen & Unwin Australia Pte. Ltd. Gentry, J. (1981). Early childhood education in the People's Republic of China. Childhood Education, 58, 92-96. Hawkins, J., & Stites, R. (l99l). Strengthening the future's foundation: Elementary education reform in the People's Republic of China. The Elementary School Journal, 92, 41-60. Hu, H. (1944). The Chinese concept of "face." American Anthropologists, 46, 45-64. Jiao, S., Guiping, J., & Qicheng, J. (l986). Comparative study of behavioral qualities of only children and sibling children. Child Development, 57, 357-361. Lystad, M. (1987). Children of China: A commentary. Children Today, 16, 20-22. National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1986). Position statement on developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth to age eight. Young Children, 41(6), 3-19. Shepherd, G. (1991). A Glimpse of kindergarten-Chinese style. Young Children, 47(1),11-15. Spodek, B. (1988). Conceptualizing today's kindergarten curriculum. Elementary School Journal, 89, 203-211. Spodek, 8. (1989). Preparation of early childhood teachers in the People's Republic of China. Childhood Education, 65, 268-273. Tobin, J., Wu, D., & Davidson, D. (1989). Preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Zhong, S. (1989). Young children's care and education in the People's Republic of China. In P. Olmsted & D Weikart (Eds.), How nations serve young children: Profiles of child care and education in fourteen countries. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. See also: Chen, J. Q., & Goldsmith, L. T. (1991). Social and behavioral characteristics of Chinese only children: A review of research. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 5, 127-139.
Early Childhood Education in China
Introduction The study of early childhood education (ECE) in China has been intimately influenced by the reforms and progress of Chinese politics and the economy. Currently, the Chinese government has shown interest in early childhood education, implementing policies in the form of The Guidance for Kindergarten Education (Trial Version) in 2001 and The National Education Reform and Development of Long-Term Planning Programs (2010–2020) in 2010. It has been found that China’s kindergarten education has dramatically changed since 1990. In recent years, various Western curricula and pedagogical models have been introduced to China, such as Montessori programs, Reggio Emilia, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP), and the Project Approach. Many kindergartens have faced difficulties and challenges in adapting these models in their programs. Therefore, a heated debate about how the Western curricula can be appropriated in the Chinese cultural context has been initiated between early childhood researchers and practitioners. Research has revealed that the most important aim for promoting curriculum reform is to improve kindergarten teachers’ professional knowledge, such as their understanding of the concept of play and pedagogy, and perceptions of inclusion and kindergarten-based curriculum. Furthermore, within the process of reform, family education and family collaborations cannot be ignored in child development. General Overviews Early childhood education in China has made dramatic progress since the 1980s. In Tobin, et al. 2009, which studies across three cultures, the continuity and change across the systems of early childhood education are evident. The project report Zhongguo Xueqian Jiaoyu Fazhan Zhanlue Yanjiu Ketizu 2010 reflects upon the development of China’s early childhood education and locates the current situation of the development of early childhood education. The historical development of Chinese early childhood education indicates three distinct cultural threads, including traditional culture, communist culture, and Western culture, that have shaped early childhood education in China, as demonstrated in Zhu and Zhang 2008 and Lau 2012. Furthermore, currently, administrative authorities intend to establish an independent budget for the ECE field in order to support early childhood education in rural areas (Zhao and Hu 2008). A higher quality of educational provisions for children living in rural areas will be another goal for the Chinese government. Many researchers have detailed the important issues of early childhood education, especially teacher education. The exploratory study in Hu and Szente 2010 (cited under Early Childhood Inclusive Education) has indicated that Chinese kindergarten teachers hold negative attitudes toward inclusion of children with disabilities, as they do not have enough knowledge and skills for working with this population. This indicates that kindergarten teachers need to improve their perceptions of children with disabilities. Furthermore, Gu 2007 has focused on the issues of new early childhood teachers’ professional development and puts forward some feasible suggestions about how new teachers deal with key events in their everyday teaching practices. With regard to families’ support of their children’s early development at home, family education should be focused and the collaborative partnership between kindergarten and family needs to be enhanced. Teachers’ attitudes toward family intervention are a vital aspect of teacher-family collaboration. Therefore, kindergarten teachers should support family members in their role as the child’s first teacher and build collaborative partnerships with family, as presented in Ding 2007. Furthermore, kindergarten teachers should be considered as active researchers in children’s role play. This supports the co-construction of their teaching knowledge in relation to children’s initiation/subjectivity in role play (Liu, et al. 2003).
Huge potential seen for preschool English in China
As more and more Chinese parents look for ways to give their kids a head start in school, a new market for preschool English instruction is emerging, and showing great growth potential, according to an education analyst. "In recent years, parents (in China) have shown a growing awareness of the need to invest in children's training and education at an early age. They don't want their children to lose their competitiveness at the starting line," said Zhang Yang, an analyst with Huidian Research. The next few years could be a golden age for the development of a preschool English instruction market in China, which is expected to grow at a rate of more than 20 percent, according to a Huidian report entitled In-depth Research and Development Forecast of China's Children English Training Market, 2013-2017. The report finds an enormous potential consumer base for preschool English education services in China, where there are about 180 million children under the age of eight, with more than 20 million newborns annually, one out of three in urban areas. An increase in average family income also contributes to the market's rosy outlook, according to Zhang. "With higher income, along with the growing awareness of the benefits of English education at an early age, we expect more resources to be allocated for preschool English education," she said. "There is a great appetite in China to learn English and that applies to all ages really," said Brendan O'Grady, communications director at Pearson International. "There is a growing awareness among parents that English is a valuable skill for their children to learn — especially for the growing middle class, many of whom aspire to having their children study overseas or work for multinational corporations." Currently Pearson — along with Disney and New Oriental — make up about 30 percent of the market for children's English training, Zhang said, explaining that the preschool market is still in an "exploratory stage" and immature, which means opportunities for growth. "Thousands of schools have already entered the preschool market," Zhang said. "The barrier to entry is very low, so it is very easy to join the flow." The emerging market is also unregulated, with no policies to help it develop, Zhang added. Many services leave customers unsatisfied. Tao Dajiang regularly takes his three-year-old daughter to an English training school in Beijing, as the public kindergarten she attends does not offer English. Tao said he had a hard time choosing the right school for his child. "I don't prefer foreign brands such as Disney, because for one thing, they're too expensive," he said. "For another thing, their system might not be suitable for the Chinese. Some classes are designed for native English speakers, not for Chinese kids." Tao found that most domestic services simply used materials from foreign systems, which caused similar problems. Courses such as Lily English try to get children to think in English and immerse them in an English-speaking environment, but those children have to spend too much time in too many classes, he said. As for the domestic programs that design their own materials, the quality varies greatly, which confuses parents even more, said Tao. "I think there is a general consensus among parents born in the '80s to avoid exam-oriented education," Tao said. "But in terms of English education, we can't really tell which type of class is better." "What I want is simply for my kid to enjoy learning English, have basic communication abilities and not be afraid of foreigners," Tao said. Nini Suet, CEO of Shang Learning, a newly founded boutique education consultancy, has found that it does not necessarily take a very sophisticated product or a super strong teaching team to cater to the preschool English education market. That's why she chose to go after the adolescent market instead. "The (preschool) market is very scattered," she said. "There are good ones, but oftentimes they just license from foreign content providers and find a place to teach. They don't need to develop their own products that are tailored to Chinese learners." Suet said the low entry barrier makes it harder for a brand to stand out. By comparison, adolescents need a more comprehensive training to gain specific results, such as improving standardized test scores for admission to colleges in English speaking countries. "We will expand to the market for smaller kids when we have done well enough in serving students aged 13 to 18," she said.
Knowledge Graph
Examples
1 We will improve preschool education and develop special education schools
2 Preschool education in China has made a huge progress
3 Chinese government pays great attention to the preschool education